Monastery and biblical teaching
Born in Eisleben and raised in Mansfeld, Luther came from a family involved in copper mining. He entered Erfurt University in 1501, briefly studied law and joined an Augustinian monastery in 1505. Strict religious practice did not resolve his anxiety about sin and salvation.
After receiving his doctorate in 1512, he taught biblical interpretation at Wittenberg, including the Psalms and Romans. He increasingly emphasized salvation through divine grace and faith, testing church teaching against scripture. These positions developed through study and controversy.
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Controversy, Worms and translation
The Ninety-five Theses of 1517 challenged indulgence preaching in relation to repentance and salvation. Initially appealing for correction within the church, his letters and propositions circulated through print and correspondence. Disputes over authority intensified, leading to excommunication and his examination at Worms in 1521.
After refusing unconditional retraction, he faced an imperial ban and was protected at the Wartburg. His German New Testament, revised with colleagues including Melanchthon, appeared in 1522; a complete Bible followed in 1534. Translation, commentary, illustration and revision worked alongside sermons and catechisms.
Politics and a difficult legacy
Church reform required cooperation with rulers, towns and schools, while disputes over the Eucharist divided reformers. During the Peasants’ War in 1525, Luther moved from appeals for peace to urging authorities to suppress insurgents violently. That year he married Katharina von Bora.
His later writings included virulent attacks on Jews, notably in 1543, reinforcing Christian anti-Jewish traditions. These belong beside his effects on religion, education and language. He died in Eisleben in 1546 and was buried at Wittenberg; later generations repeatedly reinterpreted his writings and image.