New York politics and a return to public life
Roosevelt was born at Hyde Park, New York, studied history at Harvard and attended Columbia Law School before qualifying as a lawyer. Elected to the New York State Senate in 1910, he became assistant secretary of the Navy in 1913 and the unsuccessful Democratic vice-presidential candidate in 1920.
A paralytic illness in 1921 permanently impaired his legs. He supported rehabilitation work at Warm Springs, Georgia, while returning to politics with help from Eleanor Roosevelt and close associates. Elected governor of New York in 1928, he developed a record of Depression relief before winning the presidency in 1932.
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The New Deal and institutional conflict
Taking office amid bank failures, unemployment and farm debt, Roosevelt temporarily closed banks and pursued emergency legislation. Agricultural measures, public employment and financial regulation combined immediate relief with changes to markets and federal responsibilities.
The Social Security Act of 1935 established old-age benefits and support for state assistance and unemployment-compensation systems, with significant limits on coverage. New Deal policies met challenges in Congress and the courts. His 1937 proposal to add Supreme Court justices failed, and renewed recession revealed the fragility of recovery. Victories in 1940 and 1944 extended his presidency beyond two terms.
War mobilization, international aims and violated rights
As war expanded, Roosevelt supported aid to countries resisting the Axis. His January 1941 address connected defence production with four freedoms: speech, worship, freedom from want and freedom from fear. After Pearl Harbor, he coordinated military strategy with allies and supported plans for a new international peace organization.
Wartime power also produced grave violations of rights. Executive Order 9066, signed in 1942, authorized military exclusion zones and enabled the forced removal and incarceration of Japanese Americans, including citizens. Roosevelt died at Warm Springs on 12 April 1945, before the European war ended or the United Nations was formally established.