Yuan: capitals, relay routes and cultures across regions

Khubilai adopted the Yuan dynastic name in 1271 and conquered Southern Song in 1279. Dadu and Shangdu became major royal centers connecting the northern steppe with agrarian regions. Ming forces occupied Dadu in 1368, and the Yuan court withdrew north. Earlier Mongol rule in northern China and the subsequent Northern Yuan each had their own chronology.

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Regional branch secretariats handled government, while local offices dealt with revenue, troops and documents. Relay stations supported travel by land and water. The Yuanshi records stations, road repair and water relays in Sichuan, alongside changes to southern offices. These facilities and labor obligations connected extensive territories, with communities along the routes providing supplies and transport.

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Artisans from Central and Western Asia and different parts of China worked in Yuan cities and court workshops, exchanging techniques and designs. Buddhist, Daoist, Islamic and Christian communities left distinct architectural and artistic traditions, while patronage shaped the uses of works. Textiles, sculpture, painting and religious objects preserve their labor and contacts.

Zhao Mengfu sought new expression through earlier painting and calligraphy. Literati painting developed through scholarly friendships, collecting and inscriptions. Artistic work drew on court resources and also belonged to urban and scholarly life.

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Under Khubilai, Wang Xun, Guo Shoujing and others worked on astronomy and the calendar, with the astronomical bureau organizing observation and calculation. Merchants and envoys traveled between Yuan and other Mongol governments, carrying goods and knowledge across regions. Such movement accompanied war, forced migration and unequal status, with travelers seeking routes, protection and livelihoods in varied political settings.

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