The United States Constitution

The Articles of Confederation preserved strong state powers after independence, but the common government struggled to raise revenue and coordinate commerce. War debts, disputes among states, and domestic unrest increased pressure for reform. Delegates met in Philadelphia in 1787 and moved from revising the Articles to drafting a new constitution. Differences in size, economy, and slavery made representation and federal authority central matters that had to be negotiated.

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The Constitution created a presidency, a two-house Congress, and federal courts. Population determined House representation, while equal state seats in the Senate addressed conflict between larger and smaller states. Taxation, commerce, and military powers went to the federal government within a divided system. Compromises concerning slavery affected population counts and representation, incorporating unequal arrangements that later war and constitutional amendments would confront directly.

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State conventions debated ratification. Supporters emphasized effective common government, while opponents feared concentrated power and demanded protections for liberty. The new government began in 1789; ten amendments became the Bill of Rights in 1791. Subsequent amendments abolished slavery, defined citizenship, and expanded voting rights. Judicial interpretation also changed practice. The document became an enduring framework whose operation depended on provisions, electoral competition, and the actions of groups seeking changes within it.

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