The Umayyads: government from Damascus

In 661, Mu‘awiya established rule centered on Damascus, and the Umayyad family subsequently held the caliphate. Expansion reached North Africa, Iberia and Central Asia. Rulers managed armies, regional elites and communities with different religions. Syrian troops supported the dynasty, while towns and farming districts supplied resources. Officials retained and modified earlier practices to incorporate conquered territories into fiscal and military networks.

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‘Abd al-Malik and his successors promoted changes in administration and coinage. Arabic gradually entered offices that had used other languages, requiring scribes to learn new documentary forms. Coin inscriptions expressed belief and authority in place of some earlier images. Taxes, statuses and military payments still varied by region. Palaces, mosques and transport works also directed royal resources toward visible institutions and infrastructure.

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Expansion brought more non-Arab Muslims into society, raising disputes over taxes, status and political access. Armies and families competed for resources, alongside religious and succession conflicts. Abbasid supporters organized opposition in Khurasan and elsewhere and replaced the dynasty in 750. Some Umayyad descendants later established rule in Iberia, while administrative language, fiscal practices and architectural forms continued in multiple regions.

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