Gao and military expansion
In the later fifteenth century, Sunni Ali expanded Songhai rule from Gao over towns and routes along the Niger. Land and river forces participated in campaigns that incorporated Timbuktu and Jenne. Towns and villages supplied food, labor and taxes through local agents. The river carried goods and soldiers and sustained regular contact among farmers, traders and residents using markets and crossings.
Administration under the Askias
Askia Muhammad organized officials, revenues and armed forces, while pilgrimage strengthened contacts with scholars abroad. Government addressed farming, commerce and town affairs, supported by food supplies and trading duties. Muslim scholars participated in law and teaching alongside existing local traditions. Cooperation with urban and religious elites shaped routine order, while succession struggles repeatedly redistributed military and provincial resources.
War in 1591 and regional continuities
Moroccan forces entered the region in 1591 and defeated Songhai troops at Tondibi. New military rule altered revenues, routes and scholars’ circumstances as wider central authority fragmented. Farming, fishing and local trade continued along the Niger, while leaders reorganized alliances. Manuscripts and oral traditions preserved experiences from different periods, and communities maintained production, supplies and travel after the political upheaval. Families continued using river crossings and nearby markets.