The founding and the two capitals
Zhu Yuanzhang founded Ming in 1368 with its capital at Nanjing. The Yongle emperor developed Beijing, building palaces and improving northern supply. Beijing formally became the capital in 1421, while Nanjing retained important offices. The two capitals and their surroundings had different political and productive roles. Canal grain transport from the south sustained the northern capital and armies.
Registers, taxation and service
Early Ming government registered households, land and obligations. The Yellow Registers recorded household members and responsibilities for tax and service, while the lijia system organized rotating duties. Civilian, military and artisan households were registered by category. Offices kept and checked the records, but migration, omissions and unequal burdens led to repeated investigations and adjustments.
References: [2]
Commercial cities and the life of books
Later Ming cities saw growth in commerce, crafts and long-distance trade, with goods and silver moving through markets. Merchants and local elites participated in bridges, transport and public affairs, and wealth also entered houses, clothing and collections. Publishers printed classics, practical works and literature, while readers bought, borrowed and wrote books within a more active publishing culture.
Commercial opportunities changed choices about occupations and household businesses. Competition for status, consumption and social relationships were closely connected with expanding markets.
References: [3]
Late Ming warfare and political transition
Late Ming fiscal pressure, frontier warfare and uprisings combined to make revenue collection and military supply more difficult. Li Zicheng’s forces entered Beijing in 1644, and the Chongzhen emperor died; Qing forces then crossed the frontier. After the Beijing court ended, Southern Ming governments continued resistance. Warfare, transfer of rule and recovery lasted for years, while commerce and local culture continued under new political conditions.