Athens: citizens in democratic government

Around 508 BCE, political conflict led to reforms associated with Cleisthenes. Citizens belonged to demes, and ten new tribes combined people from different regions, changing older family and territorial alignments. A council of five hundred prepared public business, with tribal members taking turns. Registration and shared activities sustained citizenship. People from the city, inland districts and coast had to cooperate within institutions that drew more households into official responsibilities.

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The assembly debated war, diplomacy and policy through proposals, speeches and votes. Many offices used selection by lot and rotation, while positions such as general remained elective. Large citizen juries heard cases, and payments helped some poorer citizens participate. Meetings and trials required registration, timing and records. Politics consequently involved public speaking alongside detailed procedures and recurring duties performed by ordinary members of the citizen body.

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Naval power and allied revenues supported fifth-century public life and brought imperial questions into debate. Formal political membership belonged to adult male citizens, while women, foreigners and enslaved workers sustained the city. The Peloponnesian War produced oligarchic coups followed by democratic restoration. Fourth-century Athenians adjusted laws and finance, before Macedonian intervention and property qualifications restricted participation after the war of 322 BCE.

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